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📖  Introduction

The Flavian Amphitheatre, commonly known as the Colosseum, owes its name somewhat contrary to history and the intentions of its creators. The Flavian dynasty, which came to power after Nero—the last emperor of the Julio-Claudian line—sought to erase their predecessor’s memory. Returning Rome to its people, the Flavians constructed the largest amphitheatre of the ancient world, offering the populace “bread and circuses“. However, the exact origins of the name Colosseum, popularized in the Middle Ages, remain unclear. It is uncertain whether it truly derives from Nero’s colossal statue, which once stood over an artificial lake.

Undoubtedly, the Colosseum is the most significant Roman amphitheatre and the most impressive monument of ancient Rome that survives to this day. Recognized as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World, it is also listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, along with Rome’s entire historic center.

Politics and Spectacles

Amphitheatres were typically built on the outskirts of cities, but Rome broke this norm—the amphitheatre was erected in the heart of the city, becoming its central focus. Emperor Vespasian’s decision to place it there was deliberate and carried significant political weight. He sought to restore to Rome what it had lost. After the great fire of 64 CE, Emperor Nero had claimed this densely populated area for his own purposes, sparking discontent among the citizens. While many Romans were left homeless, Nero constructed the most extravagant residence in ancient Rome—Domus Aurea, or the Golden House. Parts of this palace are still being uncovered by archaeologists, and ancient descriptions preserved in historical sources continue to fascinate and awe researchers.

To create Domus Aurea, a massive artificial lake was built in the valley between the Caelian, Esquiline, and Palatine Hills. Remarkably, Roman engineers performed architectural marvels twice in this area—first by constructing the lake and later by draining it to make way for the new amphitheatre.

“Bread and circuses”—this was what the people demanded, and Vespasian promised to deliver. The construction of the amphitheatre was funded by the spoils from the Jewish-Roman war, including treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem. Jewish war captives were used as forced labor for the project, which was completed in just ten years. Construction began around 70 CE under Vespasian and was finished in 80 CE, during the reign of his son Titus. The inaugural games likely took place in 80 or 81 CE, and during the hundred-day celebration, nearly 9,000 wild animals were slaughtered.

During the reign of Vespasian’s younger son Domitian, the Colosseum was expanded. The addition of the hypogeum introduced a complex system of tunnels, trapdoors, and chambers. These spaces housed wild animals and slaves, enabling the elaborate spectacles that made the Colosseum famous.

Architectural Majesty of the Colosseum

The Colosseum is a structure of impressive dimensions, even by today’s standards. It stands as a freestanding building, which was unique for its time—amphitheatres were typically built into hillsides. Its elliptical shape resulted from combining two theaters into one. The longer axis measures 188 meters (615 feet), the shorter 156 meters (510 feet), and the base covers an area of 24,000 square meters (6 acres). The outer ring of the structure rises nearly 50 meters (164 feet), with an extensive underground network beneath it. Over 100,000 cubic meters of travertine stone were used in its construction, laid without mortar, and held together by 300 tons of iron clamps. The design incorporated arches as load-bearing elements, reducing the building’s mass and ensuring its stability.

Today, only the northern section of the wall remains intact. Other parts were destroyed by earthquakes, looting, and fires. Some sections may have collapsed due to the unstable ground of the former artificial lake.

The outer ring of the Colosseum features 80 arches supported by pillars, forming three stories topped by an attic with irregularly placed windows. Bronze statues dedicated to deities once adorned the arches on the second and third levels. The entire structure was covered by a retractable roof—the velarium, made of canvas sails attached to 240 mast supports resembling a crown. Operated by professional sailors, the velarium shielded spectators from the sun and rain while directing air currents toward the arena to enhance comfort.

Entrances and Audience Hierarchy

The Colosseum had 80 entrances, matching the number of arches in its outer ring. The numbering of these entrances, still visible on the travertine arcades, ensured efficient access. Not only were the entrances marked, but also the staircases—76 were designated for general spectators, one northern entrance for the emperor, and three others for Roman elites. The Colosseum could accommodate up to 80,000 spectators, and its clever design allowed for a rapid evacuation within just a few minutes. Seats, passageways, and rows were also numbered, and tickets, made of ceramic fragments, indicated specific seating assignments.

The seating arrangement reflected a strict social hierarchy. The best views, at the northern and southern ends of the arena, were reserved for the emperor and the Vestal Virgins. Senators occupied the lowest tier, likely with assigned seating—inscriptions of their names from the 4th and 5th centuries can still be found etched into the stones. Above the senators sat members of the noble and equestrian classes, followed by Roman citizens, who were seated based on wealth—the richer closer to the arena, the poorer higher up. The highest level was reserved for slaves, the poor, and, unfortunately, women.

The Colosseum Arena: Spectacles and the Hypogeum

Measuring 272 by 157 feet, the arena was originally covered with a wooden floor layered with sand. While the floor no longer exists, visitors today can marvel at the hypogeum—a two-level underground network of mechanisms, trapdoors, elevators, tunnels, and hidden passages. This complex infrastructure enabled the staging of spectacular events that captivated massive crowds for entire days.

While gladiatorial combat was the main attraction, the Colosseum also hosted a variety of performances, including elaborate recreations of forests, natural scenes, and even naval battles—though it is uncertain whether ships ever actually sailed in the Colosseum.

Wild animals fought on the arena floor, and executions of prisoners were often woven into dramatic performances in gruesome ways. The crowds, who spent long hours at the Colosseum, were provided with numerous amenities, including latrines, fountains with fresh water, food, and even lotteries where they could win prizes sponsored by the emperor.

Close to the amphitheatre, auxiliary buildings and gladiator schools provided the necessary support for these grand spectacles.

The Colosseum in the Post-Empire Era

After the Roman capital moved to Constantinople and Christian persecution ended, public interest in the bloody spectacles of the Colosseum waned. Funding for such large-scale events dwindled, and the Flavian Amphitheatre fell into decline, suffering repeated fires over time. Gladiatorial combat was banned in 438 CE by Emperor Valentinian III, and the last recorded spectacle took place in 523 CE during the reign of Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths.

From the 5th century onward, the Colosseum underwent gradual dismantling. Between the 6th and 7th centuries, a chapel, later known as Santa Maria della Pietà al Colosseo, was constructed within its walls. In 847, the amphitheatre suffered significant damage from an earthquake, and the great earthquake of 1349 caused the collapse of its southern section, which had been built on unstable alluvial soil. In the 13th century, the Frangipane family transformed parts of the Colosseum into a fortress, giving it a resemblance to the present-day Theatre of Marcellus. Unfortunately, in subsequent years, the Colosseum also served as a source of building materials.

During the Renaissance, artists and humanists, inspired by ancient writers and historians, recognized the ruins as the Flavian Amphitheatre. In 1675, during the Holy Year, a papal decree declared the Colosseum a site of Christian martyrdom, protecting it from further dismantling. In 1750, Pope Benedict XIV had Stations of the Cross and a cross erected in the Colosseum. A marble plaque honoring various popes, particularly Benedict XIV, who in 1744 prohibited further removal of marble from the amphitheatre, was placed on the first level under the Valadier Terrace. To this day, the Way of the Cross, led by the Pope, is held in the Colosseum every Good Friday.

In modern times, the Colosseum has become one of Italy’s most visited sites. In 2023, it attracted over 12 million visitors, making it the most visited paid museum in the country.