📖  Introduction

The Imperial Forums in Rome were built as political, administrative, and cultural centers, showcasing the power and glory of the emperor and the Roman state. They hosted assemblies, legal proceedings, trade, and ceremonies. Each forum had its unique purpose and symbolism. These forums also served as a form of propaganda, highlighting the majesty and wealth of Rome.

Forum Romanum

Two thousand years ago, Rome was the capital of the Roman Empire. Its citizens built an extensive road network to manage vast territories, move troops, and transport goods efficiently. This network spanned nearly 43,496 miles! Key routes included the Via Appia from the south, the Via Flaminia from the north, and the Via Salaria, or “Salt Road,” used to transport salt from the Adriatic Sea.

These vital roads converged at the Roman Forum, making it the crossroads of trade and communication for the entire empire. Walking through the Forum feels like stepping into ancient Rome. Visit temples, see orators at the rostrum, and experience the atmosphere of the Republic.

Via Sacra

The Via Sacra, or “Sacred Road,” runs through the center of the Forum Romanum, connecting the Colosseum to the Capitoline Hill. Along this route, triumphant generals, consuls, and emperors paraded in magnificent triumphal processions that began on the city outskirts.

Arch of Constantine

This is the largest surviving triumphal arch of ancient Rome. Located near the Colosseum, between the Palatine and Caelian Hills. It was built in 315 CE by order of the Roman Senate. The arch commemorates Emperor Constantine’s victory over Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 CE and the tenth anniversary of his reign.

Standing 69 feet tall with walls 4 feet thick, the monument is richly decorated with sculptural reliefs. Though dedicated to Constantine, most reliefs and statues were repurposed from earlier monuments honoring emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius. Their heads were replaced with Constantine’s likeness, possibly due to time constraints—the Senate had just two years to complete the structure—or as a symbolic nod to the emperors Constantine admired.

The north side shows Constantine as a liberator and peacemaker. The south side displays battle scenes, including the key moment at the Milvian Bridge. The attic bears a dedicatory inscription expressing gratitude to Imperator Caesar Flavius Constantine Maximus.

Temple of Venus and Roma

The Temple of Venus and Roma was the largest sacred building in ancient Rome. It was dedicated to Venus, the goddess of love, and Roma, the personification of the city. It stood on a massive podium measuring 328 x 459 feet, allowing the goddesses to symbolically tower over the Via Sacra. The temple was constructed during the reign of Emperor Hadrian, who personally designed its structure. Construction took place between 121 and 141 CE.

The interior consisted of two cellae (sanctuaries). One, facing the Colosseum, housed a statue of Venus, while the other, facing the Forum, held a statue of Roma. Legend says the famous architect Apollodorus of Damascus criticized Hadrian’s design. He claimed the statues were too large and could hit their heads on the ceiling if they stood. This ill-advised comment reportedly reached the emperor, and not long after, Apollodorus was exiled from Rome, disappearing from history.

Hadrian demonstrated a keen sense of symbolism by placing the two goddesses in a single sanctuary. The name Venus evoked “amor” (love), which, when spelled backward, forms “Roma”.

The temple’s interior was richly adorned with references to Roman mythology, and its marble floor featured intricate geometric patterns. Two porticoes once surrounded the building, but only the columns remain today.

After a fire in 310 CE, Emperor Maxentius restored the temple, adding a stunning coffered ceiling to the apse. It is believed that a strong earthquake in the 9th century reduced the temple to ruins.

Monuments of the Forum Romanum

The most impressive columns on the Forum Romanum are the remains of the Temple of Saturn, dating back to the 6th-5th centuries BCE. According to tradition, its construction was initiated by the last king of Rome, Tarquin the Proud. The temple housed the state treasury. Interestingly, it survived until the early 15th century, after which it was dismantled. Today, only the 11-meter (36-foot) columns supporting the entablature remain.

The oldest and one of the most significant monuments on the Forum is the Lapis Niger, or “Black Stone,” discovered in 1899. It consists of a fragment of a square slab with an inscription and a votive deposit dating back to the 8th century BCE. The deposit contained the remains of animals sacrificed to the gods. Supposedly, the stone is connected to the death of Romulus, Rome’s legendary founder, who was either taken to the heavens or murdered at this site. A partially preserved inscription likely includes a curse against those who desecrate the location.

Another noteworthy site is the Temple of Caesar, decreed in 42 BCE by the triumvirs ruling the Empire: Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus, after the Senate posthumously deified Julius Caesar. Beneath its roof lies the altar where Caesar’s body was cremated. Today, only the remnants of the podium remain, where flowers are still placed. The temple, dedicated to the Divine Julius Caesar, served as a center of his cult. It was inaugurated in 29 BCE during Octavian Augustus’s triumph, who often dedicated war spoils there.

The last monument erected on the Forum is the Column of Phocas, dating to 608 CE. It was installed in honor of the Byzantine Emperor Phocas, who gifted the Pantheon to Pope Boniface IV. For a time, the column was topped with a statue of the emperor, which was removed after his execution and condemnation to oblivion.

The Forum Romanum suffered greatly over the centuries. It was plundered by the Visigoths during their sack of Rome in 410 CE. Further damage was caused by an earthquake in 851 CE. During the Middle Ages, the area fell into decline, and its ruins, like other ancient monuments, were used as a source of building materials. As late as the 18th century, cattle grazed on its grounds.

Excavation and restoration work began only in the early 19th century and continues to this day, gradually revealing the glory of ancient Rome.

Trajan’s Forum

The last of the imperial forums built in ancient Rome was Trajan’s Forum, constructed using the spoils of war from campaigns in Dacia, modern-day Romania. Work began between 105–107 CE, designed by Apollodorus of Damascus, a renowned architect of the time who also accompanied Emperor Trajan during his Dacian campaigns.

Architecture of the Forum

Trajan’s Forum featured a mix of open and enclosed spaces. Along the northern side of the plaza stood the monumental Basilica Ulpia, named after the emperor’s family name (Ulpius). The basilica’s interior was lavishly adorned with marble, with its space framed by side columns and two apses. It served as a venue for legal proceedings—both criminal and civil—and for the manumission of slaves.

The centerpiece of Trajan’s Square, paved with marble slabs and surrounded by porticoes, was an equestrian statue of the emperor.

Trajan’s Column

The most famous feature of the forum is Trajan’s Column, a masterpiece of Roman art and propaganda. It originally stood in a small courtyard behind the Basilica Ulpia, flanked by two libraries—one for Latin texts and the other for Greek. Remarkably, the column has remained in its original location, even as the rest of the Trajan complex was destroyed.

The column is made from 18 marble blocks, each weighing 40 tons, and stands 38 meters (125 feet) tall. It is a spiral honorific column, adorned with a frieze narrating the two Dacian Wars of 101 and 105 CE. The spiraling band of reliefs measures 200 meters (656 feet) in length and features 155 scenes with 2,500 figures. Emperor Trajan appears dozens of times, depicted as a strategist and wise leader. The column’s shaft narrows slightly toward the top, with larger figures sculpted higher up to create the optical illusion of uniformity. The height of the frieze increases from 0.89 to 1.25 meters (2.9 to 4.1 feet).

In ancient times, the column was painted in contrasting colors, but the pigments have not survived. Inside, a spiral staircase leads to the top, which once served as a viewing platform but is no longer accessible to tourists.

Mausoleum and Symbolism

Trajan’s Column also served as a mausoleum. Its base housed a chamber believed to contain golden urns with the ashes of Emperor Trajan and his wife, Plotina. Initially, the top of the column was adorned with a bronze statue of Trajan, later removed. In 1587, Pope Sixtus V ordered a statue of Saint Peter by Giacomo della Porta to be placed at the summit.

The column was a powerful propaganda tool, celebrating the superiority of Roman civilization over the “barbarians.” Its reliefs depict scenes such as the crossing of the Danube, the torture of Roman prisoners, the suicide of Dacian leader Decebalus, and the presentation of his severed head to Trajan. These images were not only meant to document historical events but also to emphasize the power and glory of Rome.